Enameled glassware inlaid with gold

Gold and silver wares are utensils and ornaments made from precious metals(gold and silver) as basic materials. Well-known for its exquisite craftsmanship and numerous varieties, China’s gold and silver ware is perceived as a symbol of wealth owing to its rare mineral reserves, bright luster and flexible texture, endowed with goodness, wealth, protection against evil. In terms of physical properties, gold is oxidation resistant, resistant to corrosion, high temperature resistant, not easy to get rusty, of strong extensibility; therefore, it’s precious. Main processes of making gold ware are smelting, mold casting, hammering, welding, bursting bead, engraving, spinning, weaving, filigree and embedding,etc. Some of these techniques are stemmed from bronze technology, and others are unique ones for gold ware.

For example, bursting bead is to drop the molten gold in the warm water, making it form different gold beads, and then to weld-bond the fish roes or linked pearls. With respect to physical properties, silver is inferior to gold, and abundant in reserves, and thus it is far from precious as gold. The silver ware appears later than gold ware, and all its crafts are almost from gold ware crafts. From its very beginning, gold and silver wares have emerged in the form of artworks with aesthetic values. China’s existing earliest gold article was made in Shang Dynasty, over 3,000 years ago. The early gold and silver articles are mostly ornaments, characterized by simple craft, small and exquisite shape, unusual carving and with distinctive local features. The gold articles within the reign of Shang Dynasty are dominantly gold and silver foils, gold leaves and plaques, mainly for decorating the furniture; in northern and northwestern areas, such articles are mainly gold jewelry worn on people. The unique gold mask and scepter unearthed from Sanxingdui Early Sichuan Cultural Site, Guanghan, Sichuan are most attractive. The booming of bronze crafts in Shang and Zhou Dynasties laid a solid technical foundation for the development of gold and silver ware. Meantime, the development of jade carving and lacquerware and other techniques also promotes the advancing of gold and silver crafts. Thereafter, the development of gold and silver ware experienced the Spring and Autumn Period, Warring States Era, Qin and Han Dynasties, Sui and Tang Dynasties, Ming and Qing Dynasties and other peaks. Eagle-shaped gold crown and gold belt of the Warring States period (475-221 BC), kept in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region Museum. The crown is7.33cm in height and the belt is30 cm in length, with total weight of 1, 394 g.

This pair of ornaments imitates the scene of an eagle overlooking a wolf chasing a goat. The gold belt consists of three semicircular bands, with the front two bands connected by in the middle while the end hooked up by mortise and tenon. Apart from traditional casting techniques, punching chasing repousse, embossing, wire drawing and inlay, etc. were also used in making the crown and belt. Gilt silver cockscomb pot of the Liao Dynasty 26cm in height, kept in the Chifeng Work Station of Cultural Relics in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region The pot takes the typical shape of a leather bagging pot of Khitan People. Yet its decorative techniques and patterns were influenced by the traditional crafts of the Han people in the middle and late Tang Dynasty. In the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Era, the craftsmanship of gold and silver ware has developed remarkably, manifested by widespread distribution and considerable quantity, as well as abundant variety, vivid style and sophisticated technology. Silvering and gold plating is the most representative craft, dating from the middle of Spring and Autumn Period prevailing in Warring States Era, and gradually declining after the Western Han Dynasty. It is one of ancient toreutics decoration techniques: first, casting out or carving the recess required for pattern and inscription on the surface of bronze ware in advance; then, embedding the gold and silver wires, plaques, firmly securing, and finally grinding and polishing with stone, to reach the decorative effects of highlighting the pattern and inscription.

The varieties of gold and silver ware include practical utensils (such as gold pots, gold spoons, gold cups, silver plates, etc.), animal plaques, spikes, ornaments, adornments(gold crowns, gold belt hooks, gold necklaces, gold earrings,etc.) and other solid gold articles.the silver plate for King of Chu collected in the Palace Museum is one of the earliest silver wares ever discovered. In Han Dynasty, gold and silver articles have been lifestyle and fashion of upper society people, boasting large smelting scale, more exquisite modeling and fine crafts, and the mainstream tends to develop towards fine craftsmanship of filigree. The filigree variety ranges from filigree, auspicious silk, pine, gold bead etc. The filigree craft includes filigree, weaving, piling, binding, etc. The mixing of welding flux and welding fineness have reached a certain level. The fine gold craft in Han Dynasty has gradually developed into mature, and finally broken away from traditional technique of bronze crafts, moving towards the road of dependent development. Besides further application of wrapping, embedding, plating, polishing and other methods to the decoration of copper and iron wares, gold and silver are also made into gold foils or mud grains, used for lacquerware and silk fabrics to increase the gorgeous sense. During the Six Dynasties, with the further expansion of external exchange, plus the dissemination of Buddhist arts, there are gold and silver articles for Buddhism. Unusual gold and silver articles at that time are mostly tainted with external colors of northern nomadic people or Persian Sassanian Empire. ① Silver stem cup with hunting motif of the Tang Dynasty, 7.4cm in height and 6.3cm in diameter, kept inthe National Museum of China. The fish roe patterns on the cup are carved in the qianke method. The middle of the cup is decorated by two bumping string patterns, with four drawings of hunters going hunting on galloping horses with various postures which are cleverly arranged ② Gilt silver plate in the shape of two peaches with dual-fox patterns of the Tang Dynasty, with a height of 19cm and a maximum diameter of 22.5cm, kept in Shaanxi History Museum. In the each center of the two -peach-shaped plate lies a gilt fox respectively, which head the same direction and look at each other, really vivid. The design of double foxes with double peaches indicates Chinese traditional hopes of “prolonging one’s life, “scaring away evil spirits, “and ‘pray for blessings. The technique of visible master patterns with invisible auxiliary patterns is learnt from western metal processes.③ 3 Silver cup in the shape of tree-like canoe of the Yuan Dynasty, 18cm in height and 20cm in length, kept in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The main body of the work takes the shape of an old tree with staggered branches and twigs.

A Taoist priest, leaning on the tree, is concentrating on the book in his right hand. The cup is made of silver and engraved. This work represents the superb level of silverware techniques of the Yuan DynastyGold and silver ware making grew highly prosperous in Tang Dynasty, and trade of gold and silver ware was flourished at that time. Most government-run workshops were located in Chang’an, the capital city of Tang Dynasty. Most privately-owned workshops were located in Yangzhou of Jiangsu Province and Chaozhou of Guangdong Province, and Yangzhou was the first trade center of gold and silver in China. Gold and silver ware of Tang Dynasty has great varieties. They could be divided into several categories, including tableware, drinking vessels, utensils, container of medicine, utensil for daily use, ornaments and utensils for religious purpose. Moreover, all gold and silver ware was made with diversified crafts, such as hammering, casting, welding, cutting, polishing, engraving and hollow-out, as well as complicated processing methods, such as gold-plating, gold-knitting, gold-entwisting, gold -inlaying, gold-painting, gold-engraving and gilding. In Tang Dynasty, gold and silver ware has formed gorgeous, colorful, mature, healthy, elegant and vivid style, and has become the symbol of a flourishing era.In Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, silver tableware has become very popular among ordinary people. The silver tableware has diversified shapes, delicate ornamentation and was made with sophisticate techniques. Lacquer, wood and other materials were added on gold and silver ware, and the art of painting was introduced in decoration, making them full of poetic and elegant beauty. Three-dimensional carved decoration and embossed carving craft were the features of gold and silver ware of Song Dynasty. In Yuan Dynasty, the categories of gold and silver ware became more diversified. Apart from utensils for daily use and decoration, there were also display articles, such as bottles, boxes, vessels, caskets and shelves. Gold and silver ware in Ming Dynasty and Qing Dynasty has more delicate shape, more sophisticated craftsmanship, more luxurious ornamentation, and more distinctive royal style. The gold crown of Emperor Wanli of Ming Dynasty, which was found in Ding Mausoleum in Beijing, was made with sophisticated crafts. Its gold threads were evenly woven and neatly tied up. In Ming Dynasty, it was popular to inlay rubies, sapphires, emeralds, jadeites and pearls on gold and silver ware. In Qing Dynasty, craftsmen developed composite crafts for making gold and silver ware. They added enamels, pearls, jade and gemstones on gold and silver ware, making them look more brilliant. The fine gold and silver processing craft combined the craftsmanship of the imperial court with that of South China and North China, Inner Mongolia and Tibet, Manchu people and Han people, and produced elegant, gorgeous and delicate style Silver phylactery of the Qing Dynasty, 30cm in length, kept in the Palace Museum in Beijing. On the top of case chiseled cloud dragon designs. In the center is a cover chiseled with stories of Buddhism in the frontwith twined babao designs in the reverse side and twined lotus designs on both sides, equipped with a pair of elongated rings. There is a yellow label inside of the phylactery, indicating it is a fine work of the Uuldartisan from Mongolia, captured in the suppress of Zungar rebellion during the reign of Emperor Qianlong (reigned 1736-1795 AD) of the Qing Dynasty. Some territorial and periodical features could be found in the decorating crafts for silverware in modern times. For example, the silverware in Guangdong Province was made with hammering and embossing crafts. Silverware stores in Shanghai were good at chiseling. Craftsmen in Beijing were good at using composite crafts, such as enameling (bluing), wire inlaying and inlaying Most silverware in Chengdu was made with spinning craft. In modern times, Guangzhou was the first city in China where silverware-making became a prosperous business. Silverware stores grew most prosperous in Shanghai.

Some port cities exported silverware to foreign countries.Like exported porcelain, exported silverware in China has western shape, but its ornamentation has distinctive Chinese features. In this period, the shaping crafts for silverware include casting, hammering, welding, riveting,wire -drawing-, spinning and beads explosion (drop melted gold into hot water and produce gold beads); surface (decoration)crafts include polishing, niello, gilding, gold-plating, chiseling, carving, wire inlaying, enameling, hollow out, inlaying, embossing and evenly polishing. Almost all crafts for making silverware had been used. After the Revolution of 1911, trade and cultural exchange between China and western countries became more frequently stimulating the development of gold and silver ware making industry. There were numerous gold ware and silverware stores in Beijing, Shanghai, Guangdong, Jiangsu and Sichuan. These stores mainly engaged in gold and silver processing, jewelry processing and jade processing, and sometimes they would also process articles of display and ornamentation. Workshops have a careful division of labor based on different procedures, including base-making, wire -drawing, chiseling, assembling, treasure-making blue-making, Buddhism utensil -making, jade-making, gilding and gold-covering. However, the type of works and the distribution of labor were highly dispersed due to shortage of money. In the period of the Republic of China, most gold and silverware was used for wedding celebration and birthday celebration. There were also silver bowls, chopsticks, spoons and knives, and small ornaments like boats, jars, boxes and bottles. Large high-grade display articles were rarely seen. At that time, Inner Mongolian people also developed their own inlaying craft for gold and silverware. It was used for making Mongolian swords, ornaments of sheath, and bowls, wine sets, cups and pots for daily use. Gilt silver toilet case with tuanhua designs of the Yuan Dynasty, 24.3cm in height, kept in Suzhou Museum in Jiangsu Province. The case, in the form of a six-petal sunflower, consists of three layers fastened by snap buttons. The exterior is engraved with various zhezhi tuanhua designs and the interior has a set of toilet articles. At the bottom is a round, flat, shallow tray with contracted mouth whose rim is carved with twinedesign. The center of the tray is decorated with set of zhezhi tuanhua designs. Gilt silver inkstone box inlaid with enamel of the Qing Dynasty, 22.5cm in height, kept in the Palace Museum in Beijing.

The inkstone box is produced by fine craftsmanship and of both aesthetic and practical values. There is a rectangular silver tray with a pair of inkstones inside. In the exterior is a semicircular drawer where the ink stick can be stored. Hot water may be retained in the box to prevent the ink from frozen for easy use in winter. Thus, it’s commonly known as “warm inkstone. Silver-copper alloy chafing dish of the early 20tn century, 18.5cm in height and 15cm in diameter, kept inthe Palace Museum in Beijing. The dish, commonly used tableware of the Qing court, is composed of a cover, boiler, alcohol bowl and stand. A Resting Cricket by Tang Xuxiang in 2013, 7.5x11x14cm, made of gold, silver and gems. The cricket, resting on a gourd, is ingeniously and vividly designed, true to life. Since 1949, many changes appeared on modern fine gold processing craft in terms of application of science, inheritance of craftsmanship, and innovation of products. In terms of welding tools, liquefied petroleum gas lamps were used to replace blow lamps. Much progress was made on mechanizat and mould. In terms of crafts, much exploration, restoration and development was made on traditional crafts, suc as the three-dimensional filigree craft of Beijing, the plain filigree craft of Chengdu inSichuan Province, and the chipping chisel craft of Chaozhou in Guangdong Province. In terms of shape, painting and sculpture elements were introduced to traditional gold and silver ware making. Craftsmen made innovation on the shapes of traditional utensils, such as furnaces, bottles, incense burners, jars and boxes. New type utensils with apparent folk flavor, such as animals, flowers, fruits, vegetables, ancient Chinese architecture, pavilions, terraces and towers, also appeared. For example, the gemstone filigree ornament does not have a base and was embedded with gold and silver. The two-dimensional decoration of traditional craft evolved into a three-dimensional one It has diversified shapes, such as fruits and animals. It has high translucency, because it does not have a base, and shows the crystal-clear beauty of gold, silver and gemstones. In modern times, filigree is the most popular craft for making gold and silver ware. Filigree means to make handicrafts by using fine gold or silver threads. Gold and silver has good ductility and plasticity, and is suitable for making extremely fine threads or thin slices. By using various techniques, such as weaving, piling up, piercing, embedding and chiseling, craftsmen could make various display articles, such as plates, basins, bottle, furnaces, smoking sets, wine sets and hanging screens, and delicate jewelries, such as bracelets, rings, brooches, earrings, necklaces, collar flowers and hair accessories. Beijing (In the past, filigree inlaying was one of the”eight most stunning handicrafts”in Beijing), Shanghai and Chengdu are places of origin of filigree handicrafts. Apart from making jewelry, the filigree craft could also be used to make large display articles. For example, filigree artworks like “Feng-Ting Lamp, “the Watchtower of the Forbidden City,”” Vase”and”Double-Layer- Pierced Ball are the most representative works of modern fine gold and silver crafts. Glassware