The Origins of Food and Drink Culture
10 min read2,500 years ago, mountain residents in southern China invented the technique to reclaim rough mountain lands into fertile lands. They drew mountain spring water to irrigate and grew rice in terraces. The picture shows the terraces reclaimed by people of the Zhuang nationality in Guilin.(Photo by Guanghui Xie, provided by image library of Hong Kong China Tourism)China is one originating source of the world’s agriculture. The Chinese have invented ways of irrigation at a very early time. Building canals and using sloped land to develop agriculture by irrigation, as well as other means of farming. As early as 5,400 BC, the Yellow River region already saw growth of foxtail millet(Setariaitalica, also called foxtail bristlegrass, meaning the seed of broomcorn millet), and has already adopted the method of crop storage in underground caves. By 4,800 BC, areas along the Yangtze River have been planted with rice(with the distinction of sticky or non-sticky rice, the earliest “rice”pertains to the glutinous types of rice only). Since entering the agricultural age, the Chinese have formed a dietary composition with grains as the principal food and meats as supplement, and such tradition has continued to this day.
There exists an old piece of writing in China by the title of Huangdi Neiiing. It describes the food composition of the Chinese as “The Five Grains as life support, the Five Fruits as complimentary aide, the FiveMeats as added benefits, and the Five Vegetables as substantial fill.”The grains, fruits, and vegetables are allplant foods. Grain crops in ancient times were referred to as “The Five Grains”or “The Six Grains,”and usually consists of shu(broomcorn millet, sometimes referred to as “yellow rice,”a small glutinous yellow grain), ji(what we call millet today, has the title of “Head of the Five Grains,”shu andji were the principal cereals of Northern China at the time), mai(including barley and wheat), dou(the general term for all pod-bearing crops.
grows in wet lowland areas, and is the main source of protein for the Chinese), ma(refers to the edible type ofhemp, was the principal food for farmers in ancient times), and dao(rice). The shu and ji are both indigenous toChina, and were introduced to Europe in prehistoric times. Rice and wheat are not native to the north of China.
It is generally thought that the origins of rice are to be found in South China, India and South East Asia. In the sites of the Chinese Neolithic Hemudu Culture (5000-3000 BC), archaeologists have found the world’s earliest evidence of rice cultivation, but in early times the growing of rice in the north of China was far from widespread, and rice counted as a precious grain. It was not until the Han Dynasty (206 BC to 220 AD), with steady improvements in irrigation and the opening up of the south, that rice gradually became a regular foodeverywhere, and even then for the most part white rice continued to be regarded as a comparatively expensive food. Wheat originated from Central or West Asia. Some time around the Neolithic period it was introduced to China from northwest, but cultivation started later than the growing of rice, and until the later years of the Zhou Dynasty(1046 to 256 BC) wheat was only for the aristocracy. Also, the sorghum is an indigenous Chinese crop as well, and was introduced to India and Persia(present day Iran) during the first century AD. During every Chinese New Year celebration, the Chinese use the idiom “Good Harvest of the Five Grains,”which really means to bless the New Year with good harvest of all crops, so as to bring prosperity. This is enough to show that in a large country where”The masses regard food as their heaven,”the production of crops has held enormous importance since olden days.
Drying crops in the sun on rooftops is a more common tradition in the countryside of southerm China.(Photo by Xiaoming Feng, provided by image library of Hong Kong China Tourism)Experiences from cultivating land gave way for the Chinese to learn about many edible plants that areunknown to the West. And they have discovered that many of the human body’s essential nutrients can be obtained from plants. The beans, rice, broomcorn millet, millet and other foods that the Chinese often eat are all rich in proteins, fatty acids and carbohydrates.
Foods made from grain come in many varieties and take on many forms. The northern Chinese’s principal food was wheat. Therefore, most dishes on the dinner table are various types of pastry or pasta. Wheat flour is made into buns, pancakes, noodles, stuffed buns, dumplings, wonton and so on. On the other hand, in the southern part of China, the principal food is rice-based. Besides plain rice, there would be thin rice noodle, thick rice noodles, rice cakes, stuffed glutinous rice balls in soup and other types of pasta and pastry to be found everywhere. Rice spread from south to north, and with barley and wheat passing from west to east contributes significantly to the shaping of Chinese dietary habits.
Noodles after being air-dried can be stored for longer periods of time.(Photo by Michael Chermey, provided by lmagechina)Special racks to air-dry grain crops in the sun used in the villages of Guizhou Province.(Photo by Yinian Chen, provided by image library of Hong Kong China Tourisnm)Bing, or Chinese pancakes, was one of the earliest forms of pastry. The earliest method of making bing, is to ground the grain to a powder, make into dough by adding water, then boil in water until cooked. In time, there has come to be steamed, baked, toasted, fried and other kinds of pancakes. Bing also has the most varieties among all dough-made foods. It comes in all sizes and thickness, some with stuffing. Even the stuffingcomes in no less than several dozen varieties. The non-stuffed pancakes are single or multi-layered. Those with good skills can make around a dozen layers in a pancake, each layer being as thin as paper. The sesame seed cake is the most popular baked pastry, and can be found in both the north and the south.
China is an important center of origin for citrus fruits in the world. Original wild orange types grow in many places such as Hunan, Sichuan, Guangxi, Yunnan, Jiangxi, Tibet and so on.(Photo by Yu Shen, provided by Imagechina)Noodles are also a type of traditional food made from flour. The earliest way of making noodles was nothing but to cook in boiling water or soup. It was only after the Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD), did there cometo be meat or vegetarian pasta sauce. Noodles have a close correlation with Chinese festivities. In the north, there is the belief that “on the second day of the second month (lunar calendar), the dragon raises its head.”So people have the custom of eating Dragon Whisker Noodles, to pray for good weather and harvest during the year. In the southern regions, on the first day of the lunar year,”New Year’s Noodles”are to be had. In addition, Longevity Noodles are for celebrating birthdays. When a child reaches one month in age, together the family shall have “Soup Noodle Banquet.”Though the art of noodle making may look simple, it is actually a complex task that requires many different skills, such as rolling, rubbing, stretching, kneading, curling, pressing, and slicing.
The Chinese at around the 3rd century AD, have mastered flour fermentation techniques by using the easily fermented rice soup as a catalyst. Later, bases were experienced to neutralize the fermentation process when making dough. The advent of the steam basket, the Chinese griddle and other cooking utensils, togethel with fermentation techniques, have helped to provide the endless possibilities of pasta dishes and pastiy. The most common food made from flour, since the development of fermentation techniques, would be the mantou, or plain steamed bun.
Stone milings are traditionally important tools to process crops. Before the 1950’s, in many places, stone millings were also important dowries when girls get married. At present, mechanical processing technique is applied by more and more farmers in China.
The picture shows a mill in a Shaanxi cave-house.(Photo by Xiaogang Shan, provided by image library of Hong Kong China Tourisnm)Plain steamed rice is the most commonly encountered type of rice-food, and is the principal food of the southen Chinese. But more characteristic of traditional Chinese rice-foods is still zhou, or Chinese porridge(congee). Porridge has had thousands of years of history in China, and the way people eat porridge varies fromregion to region. There are also countless varieties of Chinese porridge, where just the basic ingredients are divided into six main groups, namely the grains, vegetables, fruits, flowers, herbs and meats. And the way of eating rice dressed with porridge has existed for quite some time.
Rice is a major source of the Chinese’s principal food. From Daxing’ an Mountain to areas along the Yangtze River, and from Yungui highlands to the foot of the Himalayas, wherever rice can be grown, it will appear in people’s daily diets, religious celebrations and wedding banquets or in the paintings and songs. The planting of rice changes sceneries in its location. Almost 3 billion people in the world share the culture, tradition and the untapped potential of rice. The picture shows farmers transplanting rice seedlings in rice paddies in Hainan Province.(Photo by Yijun Xiong, provided by Imagechina)Thirty years ago, rice and white flour were considered”fine foods,”which most common folks are not able to have at every meal. Its counterpart, the “rough foods,”were the real main dietary components of the Chinese, including corn, millet, sorghum, buckwheat, oats, yams, beans and so on.
Among all the “rough foods,”soybeans gave the greatest contribution. The earliest record of soybean planting was in the West Zhou Dynasty. Soybeans at the time were the food of farmers. It was not until the West Han Dynasty (26 BC-25 AD) after the emergence of tofu, or bean curd, did soybean become acceptable to the bureaucrats and the literati class in Chinese society. To the present day, there are well over a hundred kinds of tofu and foods made from soybean milk. Chinese-grown soybeans and soybean products provide folan important source of vegetable proteins, and can be made into many premium sauces. Bean curd is placed somewhere between the category of principal and supplementary foods. It has since its creation evolved into many kinds of dishes, and has become typical Chinese home cooking. Different when compared to westerners’ common use of butter and other animal oils, the Chinese mostly use vegetable oils such as soybean oil vegetable seed oil, peanut oil, corn oil and so on.
Before the Qin Dynasty (221 BC) writings, fruits to make the most frequent appearances are peaches, plums and jujubes; and after those come pears, sour plums, apricots, hazelnuts, persimmons, melons.
hawthorns, and mulberries; making rare appearances are Chinese wolfberries, Chinese crabapples, and cherries.
Most of these fruits are indigenous to fruit trees in temperate zones of northern China, or have been introduced to China in prehistoric times. Of which, peaches, plums, jujubes and chestnuts were often used as ceremonial rituals. Peaches were exported from northwestern China by way of Central Asia to Persia; and from there, the peach found its way into Greece and other European countries. So it is unlike the common belief of theEuropeans that peaches originated in Persia. Many other fruits that were indigenous to southern China.
including tangerines, shaddock (pomelo), mandarin oranges, oranges, lichee, longan, Chinese crabapples, loquat, red bayberries and more, are gradually being consumed in broader areas.
During the transformation from a fishing-and-hunting society into agricultural society, meats were also once an important component of the supplementary diet of the Chinese, due to underdeveloped technology in the growing of vegetables. In the agricultural age, the Chinese considered cattle, sheep, and pig to be the three superior domesticated animals, caled the three sheng, or sacrificial animals. When performing sacrificial rituals, the three animals were considered the best grade of all offerings. Horse, cattle, sheep, chicken, dog and pig together, were called the six chu, or domesticated animals. Under the influence of relatively high population density and limitations in the natural environment, as well as other factors, horses and cattle were most often regarded as principal assistants in agriculture, and not fed and raised as livestock for food. Therefore, all the way until the Song Dynasty, the Chinese considered beef a rare delicacy, whereas mutton was seen as a very common dish. Lamb(meat from a young sheep) was considered the superior grade of meat from a sheep. The character mei in the Chinese script, meaning beauty, is associated with eating mutton in its meaning and form.
Pigs and Chickens were also some of the earliest animals to be domesticated and used as food. Due to the early development of poultuy breeding, eggs are the most frequently consumed animal-related food for the Chinese.
A common feature of the Chinese countryside is that families raised pigs (excluding believers of Islam), as pork is the most common meat in Chinese food. With the same attitude towards lamb, the ancient Chinese believed that meat from a piglet tastes better than that of a fully-grown pig. In China’s past, dogs were animals that could be slaughtered at any time to be cooked as food. Though it is not as common as having pork and chicken, there were specialized professions in the area of dog butchers. The Chinese also invented the primitive egg incubator, breeding cell and many other poultry feeding devices.
Food for the Chinese since the pre-Qin period have been mainly grains, so meats were rare and cereals were abundant. With the advancement of vegetable growing techniques, vegetables were no longer the privileged enjoyment of the wealthy few. The list of vegetables that the Chinese eat is perhaps the biggest variety offering in the world. Common veggies include the Chinese cabbage, turnip and radish, eggplant, cucumber, peas, Chinese chive(leek), wax gourd, edible fungi, plant shoots, and various beans, as well as edible wild herbs grown in small quantities. Wild herbs are supplementary foods with the main purpose of helping people to swallow food. This forces culinary technique to constantly improve upon itself. The variousvegetable roots, stems, and leaves could be eaten fresh or cooked, and could be dried for storage, or cured formaking different kinds of appetizers. The goal is to offer as much variety in texture and taste as possible.
When compared to a dietary composition of excessive animal-based foods, many nutritional scientists believe that the Chinese inclination towards grains as principal food, with fish, meats, eggs, milk and vegetables being supplementary diet components, helps to provide for a balanced nutritional intake and more benefits tohealth, and is also in accordance with the global call for energy conservation and environmental protection.
