Bronze Utensils
14 min readBronze utensils, belonging to ritual ware, were mainly used in sacrifices, banquets and other ceremonies or events for cooking and holding meat, millets, broomcorn millets, rice and sorghum, and so on. Different utensils represented different ranks and the hierarchy of the users.
The Ding, as a core bronze ritual ware among various bronze ware, is one of the main elements in sacrifices, court activities, banquets, funerals and other events.
According to their functions, the Ding is further categorized into Huo Ding, Sheng Ding and Xiu Ding (also called “Auxiliary Ding”) for cooking animal sacrificial meat, holding the cooked meat and the seasoning soup. Sheng Ding, also known as the Main Ding, represents the noble identity.
According to the popular historical story of “Chu Wang Wen Ding,”in 606 BC, King Zhuangwang of the Chu State started a war to attack the Rong State controlled by Lu Hun. King Zhuangwang stationed his army at the border when passing the Eastern Zhou’s capital Luo Yi and sent envoys to ask about the weight of the nine Ding stored in the court. The Emperor of Zhou sent his minister Wang Sunman for a reply. He said at the time of the establishment of the Xia Dynasty, the ruler of nine regions paid bronze as tribute to cast the nine Ding with various images engraved on them to tell the people how to achieve auspiciousness and avoid omnipotence. The nine Ding of the Xia were passed to the Shang and Zhou dynasties and protected by those with virtues and capabilities. Although the Zhou Dynasty declined, the will of Heaven was unchanged, and so one must not ask about the weight of the nine Ding.
Ancient literature has written that, besides the King Zhuangwang of the Chu State, the Qin and Qi States also asked about the nine Ding in the Zhou Dynasty. But they were also stalled by eloquent ministers. It is said that the nine Ding were captured by the King of the Qing State and eventually disappeared.
The legend on the nine Ding was mysterious and vague, but the following two points are clear.
First, Ding-related vocabulary definitely points to the state regime. For instance, setting the Ding, means the establishment of political power. Ding move means the transfer of the state regime. Asking for the Ding means the ambition to the regime. Ding Zuo, similar to Guo Zuo, means the duration of a state.
Second, the diction of the Nine Ding mainly appeared in the literature of the Eastern Zhou and the later dynasties, indicating a production during the Zhou Dynasty since the Xia and Shang dynasties had no ritualism on the nine Ding. Thus, without a doubt, the Ding is a symbol of state power.
In primitive society, the Ding is a kind of ordinary cooking vessel baked with clay. The main part is a pot, basin or similar containers standing on three legs for heating. At the end of the primitive society, the process of making some clay Ding improved. The size was enlarged as the practical function faded out. Bronze Ding made a debut in the slave society. The evolvement from clay Ding to bronze Ding does not simply mean material and technology progress. Instead, it was an essential change of social significance and spiritual connotation conveyed by the Ding.
The reason for the bronze Ding representing state power lies at the owner’s special power in casting bronze ware for sacrifices and the position of the owner.
Shang. Simuwu Ding 133cm high in total, spout 110cm long,79cm wide, and weighs 832.84kg. Unearthed from Wuguan village, Anyang, Henan in 1939. Kept in the National Museum of China. In the belly wall are inscribed three Chinese characters “SiMu Wu.”It is the largest bronze ware known so far.
In order to make the viewers feel the owner’s stable and unshakable power, the shape of the bronze ware must be flawless and rigidly symmetric, which is not easy to achieve. Round body bronze Ding at the early time of the Shang Dynasty were quite flawless in shape but unsymmetrical. The ears were symmetrical but the legs were not when viewed from the front. Later, artisans improved the molding through adding a triangular bottom mould. Thus the symmetry difficulty of ears and legs were solved, and the problem of hollow legs was overcome as well.
Volume was an important way to be visually shocking. To date, the largest bronze ware cast in the threedynasties was Simuwu Square Ding,a ritual ware cast during the reign of Emperor Wen Ding in the ShangDynasty as a sacrifice for his mother Wu(Wuyi’s wife). The square Ding,133cm-high,110cm-broad in mouth and 79cm-wide, weighs 832.4kg and has four column-like legs, showing a solemn and majestic architectural beauty with its enormous volume and grandness.
Shang.Duling Square Ding 100cm high.Unearthed from Zhengzhou，Henan Province in 1974.Kept in the National Museum of China.It was an important ritual object of the early Shang Dynasty.
To strengthen the visual effect of magnificence，the designer made great improvements in overall proportion and detail treatment.The previous Ding，like the Duling Square Ding，cast under the early Shang court’s supervision and unearthed in Zhengzhou，Henan，also looks grand and solemn.However，it is notcomparable with the Simuwu Ding.The 100cm-high Duling Square Ding，with a deep belly and short legs looking like a mallet，seems like a bigheaded，stout child.The Simuwu Ding，square in shape with the proper proportion of ears and legs，looks a like an adult.In the aspect of detail treatment，the rim and the external side of the ears of Duling Square Ding are thin，while the Simuwu Ding has thicker ears and rim.In the aspect of adornment，the Simuwu Ding has a large space in the center of the four sides with mysterious Taotie and Kuilong designs.On the external sides of both ears，a pair of horrible relief tigers stand opposite with a head inside each of their open jaws.The picture is also found in the Shang’s weapon Fuhao Battle-ax，a special weapon of high-level nobles.A view from any angle to the Simuwu Ding will give a feeling of terror due to its mysterious and eerie images.
Shang. Man-face Square Ding 38.5cm high. Unearthed from Huangcun Village, Ningxiang, Hunan Province in 1959. Kept in Hunan Museum.
The square Ding, as a unique type of bronze ware, has no clay models. Similar works of the Shang Dynasty also include Human Face Square Ding unearthed in Ningxiang, Hunan, Simuxi Square Ding, Ox Square Ding and Deer Square Ding unearthed from the tombs of nobles in the Yin ruins, Anyang. Each of the four sides of the Human Face Square Ding has a huge relief of a human face in realism. But it is not a human being with horns and claws. It is the only bronze ware with a human face as the adornment. Some one guessed the image was related with the legend of the “Four-face Huangdi.”Western Zhou. Yu Ding 101.9cm high, and weighs 153.5kg. It was excavated from Licun Village, Qishan, Shaanxi Province in the 29th year of Emperor Daoguang(1849) of the Qing Dynasty. Kept in the National Museum of China.
Square Ding were still pervasive in the early Zhou Dynasty, but no longer had the majestic structure like the Simuwu Ding in the Shang Dynasty. The small volume and fine fabrication of these Ding are more exquisite but less majestic than those made in the Shang Dynasty. Round Ding were more pervasive in the period, especially the heavy and enormous round Ding. Yu Ding, cast in the beginning of the Zhou Dynasty, is the most famous one of them.
Yu Ding,101.9cm-long, is round and plump with two ears sticking out, resulting in a harmonious and clear contour line. The rim is curled inward and is adormed with a Taotie image, repeating the upper relief Taotie design. The belly is smooth without any adornment. The 291-character inscription on the Yu Ding records the emperor awarded 1,708 people to Yu and warned him not to handle the administrative issues when drunk in the 23rd year reign of Emperor Kangwang of the Zhou Dynasty (997 BC). The inscription on the Yu Ding is of high value to academics specializing in the Western Zhou Dynasty.
Some famous big Ding cast in the Western Zhou Dynasty, such as De Ding and Dake Ding are preserved in the Shanghai Museum and Chunhua Ding collected in the Shaanxi History Museum, inherited and developed the shape of Yu Ding.
Spring and Autumn Period. Wangziwu Ding 69cm high, spout diameter 66cm, and weighs 100.2kg. It was unearthed from Xiasi, Xichuan, Henan Province in 1978. Kept in Henan Museum. It is the largest of seven Ding unearthed at the same time. On the inner wall there are 84 Chinese characters, recording that Wangziwu made the vessel during the reign of the King Chukangwang. Wangziwu was son of King Chuzhuangwang.
At the end of the Western Zhou Dynasty, the round belly Ding were gradually replaced by half-moon and horse shoe-shape Ding with Maogong Ding and Song Ding as key examples. Maogong Ding, cast during the reign of Emperor Xuanwang of the Zhou Dynasty (827-781 BC), is preserved in the National Palace Museum, Taipei. The 499-character inscription represents the Zhou cout’s appointment to Maogong Cuo. The Ding is well proportioned and simply adorned with only one ring and one string pattern, indicating the elegance and harmony of the bronze ware in the Western Zhou Dynasty.
Warring States Period. Ding with Spout with Gold and Silver Wire Inlaid Flower Patterms 11.4cm high. Excavated from Xiaotun, Luoyang, Henan Province in 1981. Kept in Luoyang Cultural Relics Work Team of Henan Province.
The quantity and size of Ding applications were rigidly restrained by rituals in the Western Zhou Dynasty, such as the Lie Ding system. The Emperor can use nine, nobles seven, scholar officials, five and the scholar, three. In important sacrifices, various Ding are ranked in order with ox, sheep, pig and fish inside it.
After the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, the Ding application system ended due to the collapse of the ritual and music system. The shape of the Ding focused more on practical use and diversification. For instance, adding lids to keep things at a certain temperature; changing the design of the ears for the convenience of lifting; and, applying deep-belly and round bottom shapes for the Ding used for cooking meat.
The series of Ding unearthed from the tombs of nobles of the Chu Kingdom and other kingdoms deeply influenced by the Chu’s culture clearly represent the development trend of bronze Ding in that period. For example, the Sheng Ding (formal Ding) range unearthed from the early Warring State’s Zenghou Yi’s tomb, consisting of nine pieces, has an open mouth, thick square rim, shallow belly, slim waist, two outward-protruding ears and horse shoe-shaped short legs supporting a flat belly.Shiny turquoise is inlaid in the body with four dragons as adornments.Straight-line structures are mostly applied with diversified adornments and patterns for decorative enrichment.It looks grand from far away and magnificent from nearby，showcasing the romance of the Chu culture.Wangzi Wu Ding，excavated from the Xia Temple，Xichuan，Henan and Zenghou Yi Ding is a typical piece of Chu’s Sheng Ding.
Some small Ding cast in the Warring States Period focused on exquisite and gorgeous design and proper functions.For instance，the 11.4cm-high Cuojin Yunwen Ding，unearthed in Xianyang，Shaanxi，is stout，eared and spouted，equipped with a ring on the lid and completely decorated with gold and silver-wire inlaid pattern of a lotus flower，triangle and clouds.It is both a practical and an exquisite work.
A piece of Ding made in the Qin Dynasty was found in a pit at the side of the tomb of Emperor Qinshihuang.Even though the lid was lost，the weight of the Ding’s body is still about 212kg.The Ding’s pattern is magnificent and gorgeous but the grandness of the Ding in the Shang and Zhou dynasties has disappeared.
Gui
The Gui is a food vessel for holding broomcorn millets，millets and other food. It is simple in style and is from the Shang Dynasty.It looks like a deep-belly bowl，with ears on both sides for lifting and loop legs below for support and stability.
Westerm Zhou.Li Gui 28cm high，spout diameter 22cm，and weighs 7.95kg.Excavated from Lintong，Shaanxi Province in 1976.
Kept in Lintong County Museum.The vessel has an inscription of 32 Chinese characters and was an important vessel of the early Westerm Zhou Dynasty.
In the Western Zhou Dynasty，the Gui started to be used in odd numbers with Ding in even numbers.For instance，the emperor uses nine Ding with eight Gui，and nobles use seven Ding with six Gui.The integration of different-sized Ding with an equivalent-volume Gui presents unity amid change.
With the increasing importance of Gui in ceremonies，the quantity greatly increased and the shapes were enriched.Some were added with lids，some with pendants，some with beasts’heads，some with three beast legs or a square seat attached to the hoop leg，resulting in a grand effect.
Hu Gui，cast in the 12th year of the reign of Emperor Liwang of the Zhou Dynasty（865 BC），measuring 59cm in height and 60kg in weight，was the largest copper Gui in size known today.The inscription is the address made by Emperor Liwang to offer sacrifices to previous emperors.Hu Gui has a large mouth and body.
Direct patterns are decorated on the belly and the square seat. Curled designs are adorned on the rim and hoop legs. Two highly placed ears are hollowed out into a dragon’s head shape with a Kuilong pendant, showing a spreading force to the surroundings. The ware showcases grandeur and majesty but lacks prudence, indicating the decline of the Western Zhou’s economy.
Western Zhou. Hu Gui 59cm high, spout diameter 43cm, belly 23cm deep, and weighs 60kg. Unearthed from Famen town, Fufeng, Shaanxi Province in 1978. Kept in Fufeng Museum. The lid and the vessel share the same inscription of 112 Chinese characters. It was important vessel of the late Western Zhou imperial family.
The Gui was still popular in the Spring and Autumn Period with less changes in shape. After the WarringPeriod, the shape of the Gui tended to become simple and convenient. The Gui gradually lost its original appearance and was replaced by other vessels.
Xu, Fu, Dui
During the late Western Zhou Dynasty, Xu and Fu, which evolved from Gui, were vessels used for holding broomcorn millets, millets, rice and sorghums.
Xu, evolving from Gui, has a lid and an oval belly. It can be placed backwards since the lid has different square legs. Tile designs were applied as decoration on the belly. After a short period popularity, Xu disappeared in the early Spring and Autumn Period.
Western Zhou. Lubo YuXu 19.2cm high, spout 23.5cm long,15.2cm wide. Excavated from the ancient city of the Luo Kingdom, Qufu, Shandong Province in 1977. Kept in Qufu Cultural Relics Administration Committee. The lid and vessel body share the same inscription of 36 Chinese characters in six lines, recording that Lubo Yu made the vessel for his parents.
Fu, possibly imitating wooden and bamboo ware, largely applied straight-line design, and the body is square. The slanting lines on the walls extend outside like rays. Ring-type ears are on both sides with hoop legs on the bottom. The lid matches the body properly with only a subtle clip at the joint. Rigid square Fu and other round bronze ware are in a set, indicating both unification and change and showcasing diverse bronze ritual ware shapes.
Spring and Autumn Period. Dui Embedded with Dragon Patterm 33cm high, spout diameter 22cm. Excavated from Shouxian county, Anhui Province in 1955. Kept in Anhui Museum.
Dui mainly pervaded in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. It has various shapes. The most typical one is a combination of two half-moons with hoop ears on both sides and straight legs. If divided in half, they are two of the same vessels. The Inlaid Triangle Cloud Pattern Dui in the Shanghai Museum is embedded with turquoise and silver and cooper wires, showing a splendid look.
Li, Yan
Liand Yan are also important bronze utensils.
Li,a cooking vessel for food, is generally believed for cooking congee, or rice porridge. According to archeological study, Li was also used in cooking or holding meat since pig bones were found in Li. It looks like a Ding. The belly and three legs created a hollow bag-like space, called “Kuanzu”in design, which helped to enlarge the heating area and shorten cooking times.
Western Zhou. Boju Li 33cm high. Unearthed from Fangshan county, Beijing in 1975. Kept in the Capital Museum. The vessel has an inscription of 15 Chinese characters in four lines.
Li, started from early Shang until the Warring States Period, was pervasive after the middle period of the Western Zhou Dynasty. Some Li made in Western Zhou were gorgeous, like the Boju Li, unearthed in Liuli River, Fangshan, Beijing, has a top lid and a belly with relief ox head and protruding horms. Two ox heads on opposite sides of the lid were used as the handles.
Dayangzhou Shang tombs relics
Dayangzhou Shang tombs were discovered in 1989 in Xingan, Jiangxi province. In the tombs, more than 880 pieces of bronze ware, jade ware and ceramics were unearthed. More than 480 pieces were bronze ware. The bronze ware found in the tombs reflects strong color of the Shang Dynasty from central China and distinct regional features on the combination, shape and pattern. Thus it is concluded that the bronze ware unearthed in the tombs was cast by the local craftsmen and the owner of the tomb was the top ruler of a certain state in south China.
Yan,a vessel for braising and boiling, consists of Zeng as the upper part and Li as the lower part for holding food and water with a screen in between for steaming. Bronze Yan first appeared in the middle of theShang Dynasty, and were used up until the late Warring States Period. It is round and square in shape and not many exist. Enormous Yan were also found, for example, the Standing Deer Yan with Beast-adorned Ears unearthed in a tomb of a noble in the Shang Dynasty in Dayangzhou, Xingan, Jiangxi, measuring 105cm in height, has four legs with relief oxen heads as adornments on each side. Double layer swallow tail patterns were applied on both ears with two small beasts standing on them.
Shang. Yan with an animal face pattern and deer standing on the legs 105cm high, vessel mouth diameter 61.2cm, Ge39.5cm high. Unearthed from Dayangzhou, Xingan county, Jiangxi Province in 1989. Kept in Jiangxi Museum.
Utensils for holding meat pastes and pickled vegetables had been pervasive in the Western and Eastern dynasties. One type is the disk-like Pu with a high seat and a lid. The other is Dou with a half-moon like belly and a long handle and hoop legs.
Longshan Culture
Longshan Culture is a general term to the cultural relics of the late Neolithic Age in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River. It was named Longshan Culture because it was discovered in Chengziya Relics, Longshan Town, Zhangqiu, Shandong province in 1928. It was also named Black Pottery Culture because inky and bright black pottery and black thin-wall shell pottery were common in the relics. Longshan Culture can be seen in the wide area of middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, but featuring different cultural connotations and sources. As a matter of fact, it is not a single portion of archaeological culture. Generally, Longshan Culture was in the period of the patrilineal society.
