Bronze Ware in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty
6 min readThe Eastern Zhou Dynasty witnessed the second peak in the development of bronze ware in China.
After the fall of the Western Zhou, the new successor Emperor Pingwang, in 700 BC, was forced to abandon the original capital Haojing and moved it to Luoyi (today’s Luoyang, Henan), marking the start of the Eastern Zhou.
Consisting of the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476 BC) and the Warring States Period (475-221 BC), the Eastern Zhou Dynasty experienced intense social turmoil and was called an age of “collapsed ritualism and music system.”During this period, the Zhou’s imperial reign declined and nobles contended for hegemony, resulting in years of conflict and economic centers relocating to kingdoms.”Contention of a hundred schools of thought”appeared in ideological circles. Confucianism, Taoism, and the school of Mohist, Legalists, Logicians and Naturalists created several controversies in philosophy, politics and other respects, having significant influence on culture and art at that time.
New reforms challenged the original ritual and musical system. Bronze ware, the physical carrier of “ritualism,”was also changed. Although bronze ritual and musical instruments were paid special attention as the symbol of power and wealth in the noble and upper class, profound changes had taken place in the following two aspects.
The first change was the arrogation of the old system. The Ding application system was stringently regulated with the patriarchal clan system and hierarchy in the Western Zhou was broken and changed. This phenomena were proven by the unearthed bronze Ding from the tombs of some nobles of the Eastern Zhou.
Generally, two sets of hierarchy-indicator Ding were applied for a higher level. For instance, nobles, normally applying seven Ding, used nine Ding, the qualification of the emperor, which was forbidden in the Western Zhou. It was the same for musical instruments. For example, Ji Huanzi of the Lu Kingdom employed the dance routine of the emperor in his ancestral temple. The contemporaneous Confucius (572-479 BC) scolded him, saying:”If it can be stood, whatever can’t be stood?”Warring States Period. Zenghou Yi Tomb Jiangu Bronze Stand 50cm high. It was excavated from the Zenghou Yitomb, Suixian county, Hubei in 1978. Kept in Hubei Museum.
Warring States Period.Hollow Ding with Panchi Pattern 50cm high.Unearthed from Liuquan，Xinjiang county，Shanxi Province in 1980.Kept in Shanxi Archeology Research Institute.The vessel has two layers.The outer layer is hollow，consisting of a snarled Panchi pattern for decoration.
Second，the change in shape，adornment and pattern showed bronze ware switched to have living and practical use.The function of ware for sacrifices，rites and music systems faded out，while the practical demand led the direction of bronze ware production.Bronze ware steadily evolved to become the deluxe utensils in nobles’luxury banquets to the divine ware for offering sacrifice to ancestors.Various gorgeous bronze ware in the Shang and Western Zhou dynasties were replaced by wooden ware，while musical instruments，carriagesand mirrors and other routine necessities of nobles were greatly developed.The consecutive wars among kingdoms also drove the development of bronze weapons，resulting in great varieties and quantities.Some weapons are deemed as art due to their fine craftsmanship.
Warring States.Figure-shaped Bronze Lamp 21.3cm high.Unearthed from Zhucheng，Shandong Province in 1957.Kept in the National Museum of China.
With the decline of the Zhou court and the emergence of kingdoms，bronze ware casting scattered into various kingdoms.From the beginning of the Spring and Autumn Period，under the unified times style，bronze art in Sanjin，Qilu，Yandai，Qin，Wuyue，Xuchu and other kingdoms forged their own regional features.The bronze art in the southern Chu Kingdom had the biggest impact in the Warring States Period.
Warring States Period. Tiger Eating Deer Screen Stand with Inlaid Gold and Silver Wire 21.9cm high,51cm long and weighs 26.65kg. Excavated from the tomb of the King of the Zhongshan Kingdom, Pingshan county, Hebei Province in 1977. Kept in Hebei Cultural Relics Research Institute.
In the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, the scale and technology of bronze ware made a huge leap.
Warring States Period. Dragon and Phoenix Square Patterm 36.2cm high,47.5cm long and weighs 18.65kg. Unearthed from thetomb of the King of Zhongshan Kingdom, Pingshan county, Hebei in 1977. Kept in Hebei Cultural Relics Research Institute.
In bronze smelting, people had an in-depth understanding of bronze material through long-term practice.
According to the Record of Kaogong, the Rites of Zhou, the Qi’s government summarizes the alloy proportions of copper and stannum(plumbum) in six different bronze wares. When making bells and the Ding, the weight of the stannum is one-sixth to that of the copper. When making axes and tools, the weight of the stannum isone-fifth to that of the copper. When making weapons, the proportion of the stannum should be increased for high tenacity. The weight of the stannum is one-quarter to that of the copper for halberds and the like, and one-third for broadswords. But if the stannum proportion is excessive, it will be brittle and not firm any more.
Thus, the 50-50 copper and stannum proportion is only suitable for making bronze and ignition mirrors. This theory shows the progress of the technology as the earliest copper making experience in the world’s science history.
Warring States Period. Bronze Lying Deer 52cm high,26.4cm long. Excavated from Sanlidun, Lianshui, Jiangsu in 1965. Kept in Nanjing Museum. When it was unearthed,a bronze mirror was attached. Thus it must be a mirror stand.
As early as in the Erlitou Culture Period, people were able to separately cast the main parts and accessories and then mold them together. In the middle of the Spring and Autumn Period, the main parts and accessories could be separately cast and then welded together, showing high efficiency, as well as the promotion of products with fixed specifications and a more flexible processes for complicated shapes. The establishment of the wax-loss process drove bronze ware casting technology to its peak. The wax-loss process is also known as mold-melting foundry. First, beeswax and eutexia materials were used to make molds, then covering the surface, then after a shell was hardened, heating it again to melt the wax out and form a mold cavity, and finally pouring melted copper into it to make a mold. The advantages of the process are high precision and integrated molding instead of separate processes. It is suitable for casting components for sophisticated items.
Ancient craftspeople, unsatisfied with the single appearance of bronze ware, attempted to endow them with rich colors or changes in layers. Bronze ware found in Erlitou Culture Site applied jade inlay techniques, which was popularly employed in the Shang Dynasty. After the middle Spring and Autumn Period, gold, silver, other metals, jade and colored glaze inlay started to become pervasive and reached their heyday in the WarringStates Period. Gold and silver inlay refers to embedded gold or silver wires and slices into the prefabricated grooves on the bronze ware and then ground to make it secure. The gold and silver wires on some ware are as fine as hairs, which are lines carved with blades filled with gold and silver. The gold and silver inlay ware was often adorned with turquoise or other lustrous and colorful materials, increasing the artistic charm through color contrasts.
The aim of the changes and technological improvement of the bronze ware production led to the change of aesthetic trends in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, especially in the Warring Period. The Eastern Zhou pursued a rich variety, large volume, sophisticated and exquisite process skills, showing an unprecedented gorgeous and brilliant showcase. However, the change caused the loss of the essential meaning of bronze ware in the Xia, Shang and Western Zhou dynasties, signifying the splendid art of bronze approaching its end.
